Bjarne Stroustrup began work on "C with Classes" in 1979.The idea of creating a new language originated from Stroustrup's experience in programming for his Ph.D. thesis. Stroustrup found that Simula had features that were very helpful for large software development, but the language was too slow for practical use, while BCPL was fast but too low-level to be suitable for large software development. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing. Remembering his Ph.D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable and widely used. Besides C and Simula, some other languages that inspired him were ALGOL 68, Ada, CLU and ML. At first, the class, derived class, strong type checking, inlining, and default argument features were added to C via Stroustrup's C++ to C compiler, Cfront. The first commercial implementation of C++ was released on October 14, 1985.
In 1983, the name of the language was changed from C with Classes to C++ (++ being the increment operator in C). New features were added including virtual functions, function name and operator overloading, references, constants, user-controlled free-store memory control, improved type checking, and BCPL style single-line comments with two forward slashes (//). In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, providing an important reference to the language, since there was not yet an official standard.Release 2.0 of C++ came in 1989 and the updated second edition of The C++ Programming Language was released in 1991.New features included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published. This work became the basis for the future standard. Late addition of features included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, and a Boolean type.
As the C++ language evolved, the standard library evolved with it. The first addition to the C++ standard library was the stream I/O library which provided facilities to replace the traditional C functions such as printf and scanf. Later, among the most significant additions to the standard library, was large amounts of the Standard Template Library.
C++ continues to be used and is one of the preferred programming languages to develop professional applications.
Etymology
According to Stroustrup: "the name signifies the evolutionary nature of the changes from C". During C++'s development period, the language had been referred to as "new C", then "C with Classes". The final name is credited to Rick Mascitti (mid-1983) and was first used in December 1983. When Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit. It stems from C's "++" operator (which increments the value of a variable) and a common naming convention of using "+" to indicate an enhanced computer program. There is no language called "C plus". ABCL/c+ was the name of an earlier, unrelated programming language.
[edit] Language standard
In 1998, the C++ standards committee (the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG21 working group) standardized C++ and published the international standard ISO/IEC 14882:1998 (informally known as C++98).For some years after the official release of the standard, the committee processed defect reports, and published a corrected version of the C++ standard, ISO/IEC 14882:2003, in 2003. In 2005, a technical report, called the "Library Technical Report 1" (often known as TR1 for short), was released. While not an official part of the standard, it specified a number of extensions to the standard library, which were expected to be included in the next version of C++. Support for TR1 is growing in almost all currently maintained C++ compilers.
The standard for the next version of the language (known informally as C++0x) is in development.
Philosophy
In The Design and Evolution of C++ (1994), Bjarne Stroustrup describes some rules that he used for the design of C++:
- C++ is designed to be a statically typed, general-purpose language that is as efficient and portable as C
- C++ is designed to directly and comprehensively support multiple programming styles (procedural programming, data abstraction, object-oriented programming, and generic programming)
- C++ is designed to give the programmer choice, even if this makes it possible for the programmer to choose incorrectly
- C++ is designed to be as compatible with C as possible, therefore providing a smooth transition from C
- C++ avoids features that are platform specific or not general purpose
- C++ does not incur overhead for features that are not used (the "zero-overhead principle")
- C++ is designed to function without a sophisticated programming environment
Inside the C++ Object Model (Lippman, 1996) describes how compilers may convert C++ program statements into an in-memory layout. Compiler authors are, however, free to implement the standard in their own manner.
Standard library
The 1998 ANSI/ISO C++ standard consists of two parts: the core language and the C++ Standard Library; the latter includes most of the Standard Template Library (STL) and a slightly modified version of the C standard library. Many C++ libraries exist that are not part of the standard, and, using linkage specification, libraries can even be written in languages such as BASIC, C, Fortran, or Pascal. Which of these are supported is compiler-dependent.
The C++ standard library incorporates the C standard library with some small modifications to make it optimized with the C++ language. Another large part of the C++ library is based on the STL. This provides such useful tools as containers (for example vectors and lists), iterators to provide these containers with array-like access and algorithms to perform operations such as searching and sorting. Furthermore (multi)maps (associative arrays) and (multi)sets are provided, all of which export compatible interfaces. Therefore it is possible, using templates, to write generic algorithms that work with any container or on any sequence defined by iterators. As in C, the features of the library are accessed by using the #include directive to include a standard header. C++ provides 72 standard headers, of which 17 are deprecated.
The STL was originally a third-party library from HP and later SGI, before its incorporation into the C++ standard. The standard does not refer to it as "STL", as it is merely a part of the standard library, but many people still use that term to distinguish it from the rest of the library (input/output streams, internationalization, diagnostics, the C library subset, etc.).
Most C++ compilers provide an implementation of the C++ standard library, including the STL. Compiler-independent implementations of the STL, such as STLPort,also exist. Other projects also produce various custom implementations of the C++ standard library and the STL with various design goals.
Language features
C++ inherits most of C's syntax. The following is Bjarne Stroustrup's version of the Hello world program that uses the C++ standard library stream facility to write a message to standard output:
#include
int main()
{
std::cout << "Hello, world!\n";
}
Within functions that define a non-void return type, failure to return a value before control reaches the end of the function results in undefined behaviour (compilers typically provide the means to issue a diagnostic in such a case).The sole exception to this rule is the main function, which implicitly returns a value of zero.
Operators and operator overloading
C++ provides more than 35 operators, covering basic arithmetic, bit manipulation, indirection, comparisons, logical operations and others. Almost all operators can be overloaded for user-defined types, with a few notable exceptions such as member access (. and .*). The rich set of overloadable operators is central to using C++ as a domain-specific language. The overloadable operators are also an essential part of many advanced C++ programming techniques, such as smart pointers. Overloading an operator does not change the precedence of calculations involving the operator, nor does it change the number of operands that the operator uses (any operand may however be ignored by the operator, though it will be evaluated prior to execution). Overloaded "&&" and "||" operators lose their short-circuit evaluation property.
Beruang yang tidur di musim gugur tidak pernah meninggalkan sarang di mana mereka tidur berselimut ranting-ranting dan rerumputan kering hingga musim semi. Sebelum masa tidur panjang tersebut, mereka banyak makan , terutama buah cemara dan buah chestnut, sehingga lapisan lemak pada bagian bawah kulitnya menjadi tebal. Mereka harus menyimpan lemak dalam tubuh mereka. Hal ini dikarenakan sebelum musim semi berat badan mereka akan turun banyak. Jika seorang manusia kehilangan berat badan sebanyak itu, mereka akan segera mati. Akan tetapi, beruang dapat bertahan meskipun mereka sangat banyak kehilangan berat tubuh.
Beruang kutub hidup di kawasan terdingin di dunia seperti Kutub Utara, Kanada Utara dan Siberia Utara. Tapi kaki beruang kutub tak pernah kedinginan. Kalian pasti tidak tahan ketika tangan atau kaki kalian diletakkan di atas es selama beberapa menit. Namun hebatnya, beruang kutub tidak pernah merasakan dinginnya es karena bulunya yang tebal. Allah telah memberikan keistimewaan ini sehingga mereka tidak pernah kedinginan. Jika saja kulit mereka sama dengan kulit manusia, tentu mereka tidak akan bertahan hidup di kutub. Terlebih lagi, lapisan lemak setebal 10 cm di bawah kulit mereka menjadi penahan panas. Oleh karena itu, di air sedingin es, mereka dapat berenang sejauh 2000 km dengan kecepatan 10-11 kilometer per jam.
Beruang kutub mempunyai indra penciuman yang sangat tajam sehingga mereka mengetahui adanya bau anjing laut yang bersembunyi di bawah lapisan salju setebal 1,5 m. Ketika berburu, mereka juga menggunakan berbagai taktik. Sekarang bayangkan beruang kutub dengan bulu putih saljunya. Apakah kalian mengira seseorang akan mudah melihatnya jika ia menelungkup di atas salju? Jika kalian hanya memperhitungkan bulunya yang putih, kalian pasti menjawab “tidak”. Tapi ingat bahwa beruang kutub mempunyai hidung yang berwarna hitam. Di atas salju yang berwarna putih, hidung ini membuat penyamarannya tidak sempurna. Tapi beruang kutub melakukan sesuatu yang cerdik untuk mengatasi hal itu. Ia menutupi hidungnya dengan kaki depannya yang putih. Sekarang penyamarannya sempurna dan ia menunggu mangsa yang mendekatinya.
